Patty Shells with Minced Chicken

Patty Shells with Minced Chicken - KRATHONG THONG .

The delicate crisp shells used for this snack are made using a special brass mold. Thin short-crust pastry shells or even vol-au-vent cases can be used instead. 0©

Patty Shells:

1/2 cup (8O g) rice flour

6tablespoons all-purpose (plain) flour

4 tablespoons thin coconut milk

2 tablespoons tapioca starch (tapioca flour)

1 egg yolk

l/4 teaspoon sugar

'/4 teaspoon salt

1/4 teaspoon baking soda (bicarbonate of soda)

4 cups (1 liter) peanut or corn oil

Filling

2 tablespoons peanut or corn oil

4 tablespoons finely diced onion

2 cups (200 g) cooked chicken or pork, finely chopped

1/4cup (60 ml) corn kernels (sweetcorn)

2 tablespoons finely diced carrot

2 tablespoons sugar

1/4 teaspoon black soy sauce

1/2 teaspoon salt

1/2 teaspoon white pepper Cilantro (coriander) leaves for garnish

1 red chili, finely sliced

Make the patty shells first by mixing all ingredients, except oil, together in a bowl. 1 leat the oil, then dip the krathong mold in the oil to heat up. Dip the mold into the batter and plunge back into oil. Fry for about 5 minutes until light brown, then shake to remove the cup from the mold. Place on paper towels to drain. Repeat to make 20 to 25 cups.

Now make the filling. Put the oil in a hot wok and stir fry onion and pork or chicken for 2 minutes. Add the rest of the ingredients and fry for about 3 minutes until the vegetables are fairly soft. Leave them to cool, then divide the filling among the patty shells. Garnish with cilantro leaves and slices of fresh red chili.

Helpful hint: If using a krathong mold, be sure that it is very hot before plunging it into the batter; the batter must adhere to the mold as you put it back into the oil to cook.

Leaf-wrapped Savories

MIENG KUM - Leaf-wrapped Savories

This is the sort of dish eaten at home, rather than at stalls or in restaurants. In Thailand, various edible tree leaves are used, but lettuce leaves make an acceptable substitute. ©

1 head lettuce or bunch of edible leaves

Filling:

5 tablespoons grated coconut, roasted in moderate oven until light brown
3 tablespoons finely diced shallots .
3 tablespoons finely diced lime
3 tablespoons finely diced ginger
3 tablespoons small dried shrimp, chopped
3 tablespoons unsalted roasted peanuts
2 tablespoons chopped green bird's-eye chilies

Sauce:

1 tablespoon shrimp paste V2 tablespoon sliced galangal 1/2 tablespoon sliced shallots

2 tablespoons grated coconut

3 tablespoons chopped unsalted peanuts 2 tablespoons chopped dried shrimp

1 teaspoon sliced ginger 1 cup (150 g) chopped palm sugar 2-1/2 cups ( 625 ml) water

Prepare the saucc first. Roast the shrimp paste, galangal and shallots until fragrant, then leave to cool. Place with the coconut, peanuts, shrimp and ginger in a blender or food processor and blend, or pound with a mortar and pestle until fine.

Transfer the mixture into a heavy-bottomed pan with the sugar and water, mix well and bring to a boil. Simmer until it is reduced to about 1 cup, then let it cool.

To serve, pour the sauce into a serving bowl and arrange all the ingredients in separate piles on small bowls. To eat, take a lettuce leaf, place a small amount of each of the filling ingredients in the middle, top with a spoonful of sauce and fold up into a little package.

Pork and Tomato Chili Dip

Nam prik Ong • Pork and Tomato Chili Dip

5 dried chilies, cut and soaked 1 teaspoon salt 1 tablespoon finely sliced

galangal 3 tablespoons finely

chopped onion 1 teaspoon shrimp

paste 5 cloves garlic, left whole

3 oz (75 g) ground pork

1 cup (170 g) sliced

tomatoes

2 tablespoons oil

3 cloves garlic, chopped 1 whole cilantro

(coriander) plant l/2 cup (125 ml) water Fresh vegetables: cucumber, long beans, carrot, cabbage Boiled vegetables: long beans, eggplant (aubergine), pumpkin, cabbage

Pound the chilies, salt and galangal in a mortar or process in a blender. Add the onion, shrimp paste, whole garlic cloves and blend or pound thoroughly. Add the pork and continue processing. Finally, add the tomatoes and mix well.

Heat the oil in a wok, then gently fry the chopped garlic. When the garlic is fragrant, add pounded mixture and continue frying over low heat, stirring, until the ingredients take on a gloss. Add the water and continue cooking, stirring frequently, until much of the water evaporates and the mixture becomes fairly thick.

Transfer to a bowl, sprinkle with chopped cilantro leaves and serve with fresh

Shrimp Paste and Coconut Milk Dip

Kapi Kua • Shrimp Paste and Coconut Milk Dip

2 dried chilies, cut and soaked

5 shallots

5 stems lemongrass, finely sliced

3 slices galangal

3 tablespoons minced krachai

3 tablespoons shrimp paste, roasted

1 cup (150 g) coarsely chopped smoked fish

4 cups (1 liter) coconut milk

1 tablespoon palm sugar

2 tablespoons fish sauce

5 red chilies

Pound dried chilies, shallots, lemongrass, galangal, krachai and shrimp paste with half the smoked fish until well mixed. Heat coconut milk and simmer until oil comes to the surface and the quantity has reduced.

Add the paste and continue cooking until fragrant. Add sugar, the rest of the fish, fish sauce and chilies and simmer until thick. Serve with grilled shrimp or fluffy crisp fish flakes in a pan and cook over low heat, stirring frequently, until the sauce has thickened and reduced. Cool to room temperature and garnish with cilantro leaves when serving.

Soy Bean and Coconut Milk Dip

Tan Jiew Lon • Soy Bean and Coconut Milk Dip

5 cups (1-1/4 liters) coconut milk

7 shallots, sliced or crushed

1 cup (250 ml) salted soy beans (tau jiew), rinsed

10 large shrimp (prawns), about 4 oz (125 g), finely chopped

'/2 cup (125 g) pork, finely chopped

1 tablespoon palm sugar

2 eggs

5 tablespoons finely shredded red chili

Fresh cilantro (coriander) leaves to garnish

Bring coconut milk to aboil. Add shallots, salte,d soy beans, shrimp, pork and palm sugar. Mix well and stir in one egg at a time, stirring constantly. Cook until slightly reduced, then add chili shreds and garnish with cilantro leaves.

Dip with Grilled Fish

Nam Prik Pla Yaang • Dip with Grilled Fish

3-4 red bird's-eye chilies

1 dried chili, cut and soaked

3 cloves garlic, grilled in skin until blackened

2 shallots, grilled in skin until blackened

1 cup (150 g) flaked fish

1/2 teaspoon shrimp paste, roasted

2 tablespoons lime juice

1 tablespoon fish sauce

1 teaspoon sugar

1 teaspoon kaffir lime juice

Pound bird's-eye chilies, then add dried chili, peeled garlic and shallots and continue pounding until ground into a fine paste. Add lime juice, fish sauce and sugar. Mix well and add kaffir lime juice. Serve with vegetables and grilled or fried fish.

Green Chili Dip

Nam Prik Noom • Green Chili Dip

1 tablespoon chopped dried salted mackerel

4 tablespoons peanut or corn oil

10 large green chilies, chopped roughly

10 cloves garlic, chopped roughly

6 shallots, chopped roughly

1 tomato

2 tablespoons hot water

1 tablespoon chopped spring onion

1 tablespoon chopped cilantro (coriander) leaves

Fish sauce, to taste (optional)

Fry the dried fish in the: oil over medium heat for about 7 to 10 minutes and drain thoroughly.

Dry fry the chilies, garlic and shallots for about 8 to 10 minutes, stirring frequently, until fragrant. Pound lightly or blend briefly with the fish, then add the tomato. Pound or blend to break up the tomato, then add water, spring onion and cilantro.

Mix well. The sauce should be of a reasonably liquid consistency and a touch salty; if not, add more water or fish sauce as required.

This very hot dip is traditionally served with sticky rice as well as raw cabbage, sliced cucumbers, raw green beans and/or fried or roasted fish.

Shrimp Paste and Chili Dip

Nam Prik Kapi • Shrimp Paste and Chili Dip

1 tablespoon dried prawns or shrimp, soaked in water

5 cloves garlic

9 bird's-eye chilies

1 1/2 tablespoons shrimp paste, roasted

1 teaspoon palm sugar

1 tablespoon fish sauce

2-3 tablespoons lime juice

Pound dried prawns, garlic and chilies together. Add shrimp paste, palm sugar, fish sauce and lime juice and mix well. Serve with fresh or cooked vegetables and fried or grilled fish.

Green Peppercorn Dip

Nam Prik Thai Om • Green Peppercorn Dip

2 tablespoons fresh or bottled green peppercorns
3 cloves garlic
1 teaspoon sugar
1/2 tablespoon dried prawns
2-3 tablespoons lime juice
6 sour fruits such as green mango or green apple, sliced

If using bottled or canned green peppercorns, be sure to wash offbrine thoroughly first. Pound in a mortar or blend the garlic and 1 tablespoon of peppercorns, then add sugar, dried prawns and lime juice. Mix well and add the remaining tablespoon of peppercorns. Stir until well mixed. Serve with sour fruit, vegetables and fried or grilled fish.

Salted Egg Dip

Nam Prik Gai Kem • Salted Egg Dip

3 cloves garlic 3-4 red chilics

2 salted eggs, hard boiled

2 tablespoons lime juice

1/2 tablespoon fish sauce

1 teaspoon sugar

Pound garlic and chilies together. Add salted eggs and pound until well blended. Season with lime juice, fish sauce and sugar. Mix well. Serve with vegetables and fried or grilled fish.

Mussaman Curry Paste

Nam Prik Gaeng Mussaman • Mussaman Curry Paste

3 tablespoons finely chopped shallots
1 tablespoon finely chopped garlic
1 teaspoon finely chopped galangal
1 heaped tablespoon finely sliced lemongrass
2 cloves
1 tablespoon coriander seeds
1 teaspoon cumin seeds
5 black peppercorns
3 dried chilics, cut, soaked in hot water for 15 minutes and deseeded
1 teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon shrimp paste

Dry fry the shallots, garlic, galangal, lemongrass, cloves, coriander and cumin seeds in a wok over low heat for about 5 minutes, then grind into a powder. Add the rest of the ingredients, except the shrimp paste, and blend to mix well. Combine the blended mixture and the shrimp paste and blend again to obtain 1/2cup (125 ml) of fine-textured paste.

Green Curry Paste

Nam Prik Gacng Kheow Wan • Green Curry Paste
1 tablespoon coriander seeds
1 teaspoon cumin seeds
15 green bird's-eye chilies
3 tablespoons finely chopped shallots
1 tablespoon finely chopped garlic
1 teaspoon finely chopped galangal
1 tablespoon finely sliced lemongrass
1/2 teaspoon finely chopped kaffir lime rind
1 teaspoon finely chopped cilantro root
5 black peppercorns
1 teaspoon salt
1 teaspoon shrimp paste

Dry fry the coriander and cumin seeds in a wok over low heat for about 5 minutes, then grind into a powder. Put the rest of the ingredients, except the shrimp paste, into a blender and blend to mix well. Add the spice seed mixture and shrimp paste and blend to obtain V2cup (125 ml) of fine-textured paste.

Roasted Chili Paste

Nam Prik Pow • Roasted Chili Paste

2 cups (500 ml) vegetable oil 8 shallots, sliced

6 cloves garlic, sliced 1 cup (160 g) dried prawns V2 cup (50 g) small dried chilies 1 tablespoon palm sugar

3 tablespoons fish sauce

1 V2 tablespoons tamarind juice V3 teaspoon salt

Heat the oil in a wok and fry the shallots and garlic until golden brown; remove from oil and drain. Add the dried prawns and chilies and fiy until golden brown; remove from oil and drain.

In a food processor or blender, process the prawns, garlic, chilies, shallots and sugar until the mixture is well blended. Add the fish sauce, tamarind juice, salt and cooled oil from the wok and blend to obtain a finely textured paste.

Red Curry Paste

Nam Prik Gacng Ped • Red Curry Paste

1 tablespoon coriander seeds 1 teaspoon cumin seed

13 dried bird's-eye chilies, cut, soaked in hot water for 15 minutes and deseeded

3 tablespoons finely chopped shallots

4 tablespoons finely chopped garlic

1 tablespoon finely chopped galangal

2 tablespoons finely sliced lemongrass

2 teaspoons finely chopped kaffir lime rind 1 tablespoon finely chopped cilantro

(coriander) root 20 black peppercorns

1 teaspoon shrimp paste

Dry fry the coriander and cumin seeds in a wok over low heat for about 5 minutes, then grind to a powder. Add the remaining ingredients, except the shrimp paste, and blend well. Add the ground spice mixture and shrimp paste and blend again to obtain about \ cup (180 ml) of fine-textured paste.

The Recipes

The Recipes Recipes for curry pastes and dips precede those for the main dishes

Portions

In Thai homes, food is seldom served in individual portions, as rice and other side dishes are normally placed on the table for people to help themselves. It is thus difficult to estimate the exact number of portions each recipe will provide. As a general rule, however, the recipes in this book will serve 4 to 6 people as part of a meal with rice and three other dishes.

Seasoning Thai Food

The amount of chilies, fish sauce (which provides saltiness), sugar and lime juice given in the following recipes is a guide, not an absolute measure. Bear in mind that you can always increase the amount of seasonings when tasting the food just before serving, whereas if you overdo it in the initial stages, it's too late to reduce the seasoning later.

CURRY PASTES

Basic curry pastes (recipes start next page) can be stored in a covered glass jar in a refrigerator for 1 month or in a freezer for 3 to 4 months.

Ingredients

When a recipe lists a hard-to-find or unusual ingredient, see pages 30 to 35 for possible s ubstitutes. If a substitute is not listed, look for the ingredient in your local Asian food market, or check the mail-order listings on page 130 for possible sources.

Time Estimates

Time estimates are for preparation only (excluding cooking) and are based on the assumption that a food processor or blender will be used.

Thai Ingredients

Thai Ingredients Essential ingredients for the true taste of Thailand

AGAR-AGAR: A gelatin derived from seaweed which gels desserts and cakes without refrigeration. To use, sprinkle powdered agar-agar over liquid and bring it gently to a boil, stirring until dissolved. One teaspoon sets approximately 1 —1V2 cups of liquid.

BAMBOO SHOOTS (naw max): The fresh shoots of several varieties of bamboo make an excellent vegetable. They must first be peeled, sliced and simmered for about 30 minutes until tender. If using canned bamboo shoots, remove any metallic taste by draining the shoots, then boiling them in fresh water for 5 minutes.

BASIL: The most commonly used basil, fairly similar to European and American sweet basil, is known as horapa; it is used liberally as a seasoning and sprigs of it are often added to platters of fresh raw vegetables. Similar yet paler in color and with a distinctive lemony fragrance, "lemon basil" or manglak is used in soups and salads. Kaprow, sometimes known as "holy basil," is rarely used.

BEAN CURD: Several types of bean curd or tofu are used in Thailand. Soft white bean curd (tau hoo) is often steamed or added to soups, while small hard squares of bean curd (tau kwa) are usually deep fried. Small cubes of dried deep-fried bean curd (tau hoo tod) are added to slow-cooked dishes and some soups. Pickled or fermented bean curd (tau hooyee), sold in jars and either red or white in color, is used in small amounts as a seasoning in Chinese-influenced dishes.

BEAN SPROUTS: Sprouted green mung peas (tau ngork) are eaten blanched in some salads and soups, or quickly stir-fried as a vegetable dish. They can be stored in a refrigerator for 2-3 days, if covered with water that is changed daily.

CARDAMOM (luk grawan): Straw-colored pods containing about 8-10 tiny black seeds with an intense fragrance.

CELERY (ceun chai): Thai celery is much smaller with thinner stems than the normal Western variety, and has a very intense flavor. The leaves and sometimes the stems are added to soups, some rice dishes and stir-fried vegetables. This type of celery is often obtainable in Asian speciality stores.

CHILI: Chilies are very popular and several varieties are commonly used. The large, finger-length green (unripe), red (ripe) or yellow chili (prik chee) is moderately hot; dried red chilies of this variety are ground to make chili flakes or chili powder. Tiny red, green or yellowy-orange bird's-eye chilies (prik kee noo) are used in soups, some liquid or curry-like dishes and sauces, and are extremely hot.

CHILI SAUCE (saus prik): Chilies mixed with water and seasoned with salt, sugar and vinegar are sold in bottles and jars, the best known overseas being the brand Siracha. Some sauces are sweeter than others, and go particularly well with either chicken or seafood (and are so labeled). Chili paste, known as nam prik pow is sometimes labeled "Burnt Chili Paste."

CHINESE FLAT CHIVES (kuichai): Rather like flat spring onions, these have a far more emphatic, garlicky flavor than regular Western chives.

CILANTRO (pak chee): The Thais must use cilantro, or fresh coriander, in all its forms, more than anyone else. The inimitable flavor of the fresh leaf garnishes countless dishes. The roots are pounded together with garlic and black pepper to provide a common basic seasoning, while dried coriander seeds are used to season a few dishes. There is no substitute for fresh cilantro; it can easily be grown from seed. Cilantro is available in most supermarkets; it is sold in bunches with the roots still attached.

CLOUD EAR FUNGUS (hed hunu): Also known as wood fungus, this is a shriveled grey-brown fungus which expands to at least four times its dried size after soaking in warm water. It is enjoyed for its chewy texture in some salads and stir-fried dishes.

COCONUT MILK [nam maprow): The flesh of mature coconuts is grated and squeezed without water to make coconut cream. To obtain thick coconut milk, about !/2 cup of water is added for each coconut, then squeezed and strained. Thin

coconut milk is obtained by adding 2 cups of water to the already squeezed coconut. Unless otherwise specified, "coconut milk" in this book is a combination of both thick and thin milks. Canned coconut milk, imported from Thailand or elsewhere, is inexpensive and often superior to the milk you can obtain from "fresh" coconuts sold in supermarkets.

CUMIN (mellet yira)\ This spice is sometimes added to curiy pastes. The same Thai name is used for cumin, fennel and caraway, which are all similar in appearance, sometimes leading to confusion.

EGGPLANT (ma-khue puangy. Several types of eggplant are used, ranging from the rather bitter pea-sized eggplant to slender green, white or pur-ple-skinned varieties about 8-10 inches in length.

FISII SAUCE (nam pla): It's impossible to imagine Thai cuisine without this distinctive sauce, made from salted, fermented fish or prawns. Good quality nam pla is golden-brown in color and has a salty tang. It is used in much the same way as the Chinese use soy sauce.

GALANGAL (kha): A rhizome similar to ginger in appearance—and a member of the same family —this adds a wonderful flavor to many Thai dishes. Slices of dried galangal (sometimes sold under the Indonesian name laos) must be soaked in boiling water for about 30 minutes until softened. Jars of tender, sliced galangal packed in water are exported from Thailand and make an adequate substitute for the fresh root.

GARLIC (kratiem): Part of the common Thai combination of garlic, cilantro root and black pepper, large amounts of garlic are used in cooking. The size of garlic cloves is often much smaller in Southeast Asia than in Western countries, so use your discretion when following amounts given in the recipes.

GINGER (king)-. Use only fresh ginger in Thai cooking; dried powdered ginger has a completely different flavor. Young ginger, which is pale yellow with a pinkish tinge, is juicier than mature ginger, which has a light brown skin that should be scraped off before use.

JASMINE ESSENCE (yod nam malee): The heady perfume of fresh jasmine flowers, soaked overnight in water which is then used to make coconut milk, adds a unique fragrance to many Thai desserts and cakes. Substitute bottled jasmine essence.

JICAMA (mun kaew): This crunchy, mild tuber has a white interior and beige skin, which peels off easily. It is excellent eaten raw with a spicy dip, and can also be cooked.

KAFFIR LIME (ma-grood): This citrus fruit has a very knobby and intensely fragrant skin, but virtually no juice. The skin or rind is often grated and added to food, while the fragrant leaves are also used whole in soups and curries, or finely shredded and added to salads. Substitute dried leaves for fresh if fresh is unavailable. Dried rind can be reconstituted and substituted for fresh.

KRACIIAI (Kaemferia pandurata or Boesenbergia panduratd): This unusual rhizome, which looks like a bunch of yellowish-brown fingers, is enjoyed for its mild flavor and crunchy texture. It is sometimes referred to as "lesser ginger." Dried krachai is a poor substitute; omit if the fresh variety is not available.

LEMONGRASS (bai takrai): A lemon-scented grass, which grows in clumps, this is very important in Thai cuisine. Each plant resembles a miniature leek. Use only the bottom 4-6 inches of the lemongrass, and if it is to be pounded or blended to a paste, discard several of the outer leaves and use only the tender center of the plant.

LILY BUDS, DRIED (dok maijeen): Used in some vegetable dishes and soups of Chinese origin, these dried, golden-brown flowers are sometimes knotted for a more decorative appearance. Pinch off the hard bump at the end of each flower.

MINT (bai saranee): Popular in salads and the same plant that is used in Western countries.

MORNING GLORY: see Water Spinach

MUSHROOMS: Fresh mushrooms of several varieties are used, including delicate sheathed straw mushrooms (excellent in soups and vegetable dishes); button mushrooms; large, more bland oyster mushrooms and dried brownish-black Chinese mushrooms, which should be soaked in warm water to soften before use.

NOODLES: There are a number of varieties available, made from rice, wheat or mung-pea flour. The most popular varieties are fresh flat rice-flour noodles (kwaytiaow); spaghetti-like fresh rice-flour noodles (kanom jeen), which are similar to the laksa noodles of Malaysia and Singapore; fresh egg noodles (ba mee); dried wheat-flour noodles; dried rice vermicelli (sen mee), sometimes known as rice-stick noodles, and cellophane noodles or bean threads (woon sen), which are made from mung-pea flour
and are used in soups and salads.

OYSTER SAUCE (nam man hoi): Most brands of oyster sauce—often used in conjunction with fish sauce or soy sauce—contain monosodium glu-tamate and intensify the flavor of the dish to which they are added.

I'ALM SUGAR (nam taan peep): Made from the sap of either coconut palms or the aren (sugar palm) tree, palm sugar varies in color from gold to light brown. It is less sweet than cane sugar and has a distinctive flavor. If not available, use soft brown sugar or white cane sugar with a touch of maple syrup.

PANDAN LEAF (bai toey horn): A fragrant member of the pandanus or screwpine family, pandan leaf is used as a wrapping for seasoned morsels of chicken or pork rib. Look for fresh leaves at Southeast Asian produce stands. One-ounce packages of dried leaves labeled "Dried Bay-Tovy Leaves" are imported from Thailand, but fresh leaves are preferred.

PEPPERCORNS (prik Thai): Believed to have been the main source of heat before chilies arrived in Thailand, black pepper is still widely used. The whole peppercorns are crushed or ground only just before use for maximum flavor and freshness. Fresh green peppercorns are also added to some dishes.

PRAWNS, DRIED (kunghamg): Dried prawns as well as dried shrimp are used to season many dishes, particularly sauces. Dried shrimp, about V2 inch long, retain their shells, heads and tails. They do not normally require soaking before use. Dried prawns, more commonly found overseas, are much thicker and usually longer, and are sold without their shells and heads. They should first be soaked in warm water for 5 minutes to soften.

RICE WINE: A splash of Chinese rice wine is often used to improve the flavor of dishes of Chinese origin. Dry sherry can be used as a substitute, although any Chinese grocery should stock this item.

SALTED CABBAGE (pak kad khem): Various types of heavily salted cabbage are used in some Thai-Chinese dishes. Soak in fresh water for at least 15 minutes to remove excess saltiness, repeating if necessary.

SALTED EGG (kca khem): Salted duck eggs are used as a side dish or pounded to make a sauce. The eggs should be boiled for about 10 minutes before being peeled.

SALTED FISH [pla haeng): Many varieties of freshwater fish are salted and sun dried; they are not soaked in water before using, but are either grilled or cut into fine slices and fried to a crisp.

SALTED SOY BEANS (taujiew): Salty and with a distinctive tang, these are often lightly pounded before being used to season fish, noodle or some vegetable dishes. Varieties packed in China are sometimes confusingly labeled "Yellow Bean Sauce," while there are also brands which add sugar to already ground beans.

SESAME OIL (naman ngaa): Added to some dishes—usually at the last minute—for seasoning.

SHALLOTS (hormlek): Small round pinkish-purple shallots add a sweet oniony flavor to countless dishes, and are also sliced, deep fried and used as a garnish.

SHRIMP PASTE (kapi): Many different types of kapi, ranging in color from pink to blackish-brown, are available. The former is good for curry paste, the latter for making dipping sauces. Shrimp paste should be cooked before eating; if the recipe you are using does not call for it to be fried together with other ingredients, but just added to a dipping sauce where other ingredients are raw, either grill or dry fry the shrimp paste before pounding.

SHRIMP, DRIED: see Prawns, Dried

SOY SAUCE (nam siew): Light Chinese soy sauce and the dark black variety are both used in dishes of Chinese origin. Light soy is saltier, while dark soy adds flavor and a rich color to cooked dishes.

SPRING ONION (ton horm): Also called scallion or green onion, it is often cut to make a decorative tassel for garnishing food.

STAR ANISE (poy kak bua): A dried, dark brown star-shaped spice with a pungent aniseed flavor.

TAMARIND (mak-kaam): Dried tamarind pulp is soaked in water for 5-10 minutes, then squeezed and strained through a sieve to obtain the sour, fragrant juice. Discard any seeds and fibrous matter. If using already cleaned tamarind pulp or concentrate, reduce the amounts called for in these recipes.

TURMERIC (kamin): A member of the ginger family, this rhizome has a very rich yellow interior (which can stain clothing and plastic utensils) and a pleasant pungency that is absent in dried turmeric powder. Substitute V2 teaspoon turmeric powder for V2 inch fresh turmeric.

WATER CHESTNUT (haew): Although it is troublesome to peel away the dark brown skin of this crunchy tuber, it's well worth using fresh water chestnuts if you can find them. Their crisp texture and sweet flavor makes them popular in salads, some stir-fried vegetable dishes and even in desserts.

WATER SPINACH (pak bung): Also known in Thailand as morning glory (and as kangkung in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore), this aquatic plant is a delicious vegetable full of nutrition. Young shoots are often served as part of a mixed platter of raw vegetables for dipping into hot sauces, while the leaves and tender tips are also stir-fried. Discard the tough, hollow stems.

The Thai Kitchen

The Thai Kitchen Despite the advent of modern methods and utensils, some traditional implements are still regarded as irreplaceable Of the various basic implements used in the preparation of Thai food, a number have remained essentially unchanged over the years. Others have been replaced by cheaper (but not always more efficient) modern devices and are now mainly to be seen in antique shops, objects admired for their beauty of form but no longer serving a practical purpose for the mod em Thai cook.

In a traditional Thai home of the not-very-distant past, the kitchen was nearly always a separate structure from the main house, its central feature being an often smoky stove. Lacking gas or electricity, the fuel was usually charcoal, or wood when it was readily available as in forested areas like the north. There are still many noted Thai cooks who insist that only charcoal can provide the desired quality of heat for certain dishes and who maintain a small brazier along with the gas and electric cookers that have become standard equipment, at least in city households.

The oldest kind of stove, now virtually extinct, was an ingenious device called a chemg kran, a rimmed earthenware tray with one side raised to hold the bottom of a cooking pot; the fuel was placed under the pot on the tray. This had the advantages of requiring little space and of being easily moved from place to place (just as the traditional Thai house, made of prefabricated sections, could also be taken down and transferred to a new site with comparatively little effort). The cherng kran later gave way to more substantial, but still portable, charcoal cookers and finally to built-in ranges made of tiled cement, perhaps reflecting the tendency of the Thais themselves to stay put as permanent towns and cities developed. The actual cooking of most Thai dishes, past and present, is done with remarkable speed and employs only a small number of utensils, the most important of them being a few woklike iron pans of varying sizes, a spatula with a rounded edge to stir the food around, and assorted pots for boiling.

Far more time, however, must be spent on the preliminary preparation of various ingredients, which have to be peeled, chopped, grated, ground,

blended and marinated, essential procedures that can take many hours for some creations and that led to the evolution of many special tools.

One of the most decorative of these was the kude maprow or coconut grater. This probably began as

a simple seat, at one end of which was a sharp iron grater and below, a tray to receive the shredded coconut meat, all often carved from a single piece of wood. The user straddled the seat and, leaning forward, rotated half a coconut around the teeth of the grater in a process that looked easier than it was—the smallest slip could result in a painful cut. The kude maprow eventually became much more elaborate, with the seat carved in various shapes, usually that of a rabbit (perhaps because of the protruding teeth) but also other animals or humans, and displaying considerable artistry. Today these are comparatively rare and much prized by collectors, though some sort of scraping device is still needed, along with another to render the coconut "milk" that forms the base of so many Thai recipes.

Thai housewives with access to a market can buy freshly grated coconut, taking it home to squeeze with water to make fresh coconut milk. Cooks living outside of Asia and far from the nearest electric coconut grinder must content themselves with substitutes such as packaged flaked coconut or canned coconut cream.

Other classic implements have proved more durable than the coconut grater. The krok and saak, or mortar and pestle, traditionally made of stone or wood but also available in baked clay or metal, is still vital for all the grinding and pounding of spices that produce the distinctive flavors of Thai food. Usually there are two of these, one deep for up and down pounding and another, flatter, for grinding.

Although many traditionally minded cooks swear that modern food processors or blenders cannot provide the same results as a mortar and pestle, most Western cooks would be prepared to trade speed and ease of preparation for the laborious old method. If using a blender to grind such items as shallots, garlic, chilies, lemongrass and so on, be sure to chop or slice all items first, and to blend the tougher ingredients (galangal, lemongrass) before adding the softer ones. Add a little of the cooking medium (oil, coconut milk or water) specified in the recipe, to help keep the blades turning if necessary.

There are, however, no really satisfactory substitutes for the thick wooden chopping block and sharp cleaver used in both heavy-duty and delicate cutting. These are readily available in most Asian specialty stores.

Another important adjunct to the Thai kitchen is a wire-mesh basket with a long handle of wood or bamboo, used to lower foods into oil for deepfrying, to plunge noodles into boiling water and to blanch vegetables. These come in a number of forms, depending on the use—shallow for frying, deeper for holding noodles and vegetables, and are available at every market. (Similar items can be found in Western stores, not as attractive, perhaps, but serving the same purpose.)

Equally essential for preparing many basic dishes is some sort of steamer. Often today this is made of metal and may even be electric, though in provincial areas it is still more likely to be traditional—a set of bamboo trays, for instance, which are stacked over boiling water with a cover on the top one; or, in the north and northeast, an elegant footed utensil known as a kong khao, which can be used both for steaming glutinous rice and also for carrying it while traveling or working in the fields.

In addition to these, there are more exotic devices difficult to find outside Thailand, each used for a very specific purpose. One, the kapo, consists of three-quarters of a coconut shell, in the bottom of which are drilled small holes; two parallel rods are attached with rattan to either side of the top so that the shell can be placed on a pot of boiling water. Rice-flour, tapioca, or mung bean paste is poured into the bowl and pressed to produce a noodle-like

sweet, which is then sieved and served cold. A simpler variation is the la-chong, a perforated metal plate that looks like a cheese grater, through which the paste is pressed.

Several brass or bronze implements are also commonly used to make some of the more complex sweets. A cone with two small openings facilitates the production of the classic Foi Thong, or "golden threads," a delicate egg-yolk creation thought to have been introduced by the Portuguese during the Ayutthaya period. A sauce dispenser with a small hole (such as the Kikkoman soy sauce bottle) makes an acceptable substitute, although it takes a fair amount of practice to create these "golden threads."

Another unusual utensil is a shell-shaped mold, usually made of brass, with a long wooden handle. The mold is dipped first into hot oil and then into batter; it is plunged back into the oil and the batter cooks to form delicate crisp little cups. These cups or krathong are filled to make delightful savory snacks. (Similar snacks known as kuih pi tee are found in neighboring Malaysia and Singapore.)

Some of these implements have now made their way into Western cookery shops specializing in Asian cuisine. While reasonable substitutes can be found for most of the others, the pleasure of a visit to Thailand can be enhanced by plunging into a colorful market and finding the genuine article, which can later be put to practical use.

Eating Thai

Eating Thai The etiquette and enjoyment of a Thai meal Wherever it is eaten—in a restaurant, on a city sidewalk, on the open verandah of a farm house, even in the middle of a rice field at harvest time—a Thai meal is nearly always a social affair. Today, in most urban areas, a table and chairs are likely to be used for dining, though the floor still suffices in many rural homes, covered with several soft reed mats. Moreover, Western cutlery has come into general use: not knives, for in a properly prepared Thai meal nothing is large enough to need cutting, but a large spoon to scoop up individual portions of rice and a fork to help move the food on one's plate.

In the north and northeast, where steamed glutinous rice is preferred, it is proper to use the fingers to form small balls and dip them into more liquid dishes. Chopsticks may also be provided for Chinese-style noodle dishes, and a ceramic Chinese spoon for soups and certain desserts.

A large container of rice is always the centerpiece. Around this are placed all the other dishes and condiments, with the possible exception of dessert, if one is served. Guests are free to help themselves, in any order they want, mixing dishes at will and seasoning them with a wide variety of condiments to achieve the desired taste. The soup may thus be eaten at either the beginning or the end of a meal, and the salad likewise. The only constants are the rice, which accompanies almost everything, and dessert, which is usually brought after the other dishes have been removed.

The ideal Thai meal aims at being a harmonious blend of the spicy, the sweet and the sour, and is meant to be satisfying to the eye, nose and palate. Sometimes several of these flavors are subtly blended in a single dish, while sometimes one predominates. In addition to the rice, a typical meal might include a soup, a curry or two, a salad, a fried dish and a steamed one.

There will also be a considerable variety of sauces and condiments: nam pla, the essential salt substitute made from fermented fish; nam prik, which is nam pla combined with chopped chilies and other ingredients; crushed dried chilies as well as fresh ones for those who like their food really hot; pickled garlic; locally made chili sauce, and such fresh vegetables as cucumbers, tomatoes and spring onions.

The most common dessert is one or more of the delectable fruits that are so abundant in Thailand, while on special occasions, more elaborate desserts such as Foi Thong ("golden threads") or banana-leaf cups of Takaw, a confection of tapioca starch, sugar and coconut that comes in a wide variety of forms, may be served.

Palace Cuisine

Palace Cuisine Within the palace walls: refinements of the royal cuisine
It "was a town complete in itself, a congested

network of houses and narrow streets, with gardens, lawns, artificial lakes and shops. It had its own government, its own institutions, its own laws and law-courts. It was a town of women, controlled by women."

Dr. Malcolm Smith, who served as physician to some members of the Thai royal family in the early years of this century, was describing the innermost part of Bangkok's mile-square Grand Palace known as the "Inside," where the women of the court lived. At its peak, during the reign of King Rama V, the "Inside" had a population estimated at nearly 3,000, a select few of them bearing the exalted rank of Queen but the great majority ladies-in-waiting and lower attendants.

The "Inside" was misunderstood by many outsiders, particularly foreign missionaries, who viewed it as the most obvious manifestation of polygamy, an institution of which they strongly disapproved. Even a few outsiders who were granted entry, like Anna Leonowens, insisted on referring to it as "the harem," its female guards as "Amazons," and its inhabitants as quasi-prisoners. This view actualty had a lot more to do with Western fantasies than with fact.

In truth, the inner palace can be more accurately viewed as a kind of ultra-ex-clusive finishing school, a place where the most refined aristocratic skills were perfected and passed on. The daughter of a nobleman who had spent all or part of her youth in this rarefied atmosphere was regarded as highly desirable by any future husband, for she would surely be adept at supervising an elegant household of her own in the outside world.

During their ample leisure time, the royal women learned such delicate arts as traditional Thai floral decoration, threading fragrant blossoms into intricate wreaths and molding clay into miniature dolls of marvelous detail. Above all, they learned how to prepare various foods that were not merely more subtle in flavor than their outside versions but highly memorable in visual appeal.

The hallmarks of the so-called "palace food"— which was, in fact, to be found in most aristocratic homes as well—were painstaking hours of preparation and an artistic sense of presentation. Foi Thong, for instance, is a blend of egg yolks and sugar transformed into a nest of silky golden threads, while Look Choop are tiny imitation fruits shaped by hand from a mixture of bean paste and coconut milk and colored to exactly match their real-life models. Mee Grob, which one writer has called "the epitome of palace cuisine," involves crisp rice noodles and shrimp in a sweet-sour sauce, so time-con-suming to make properly that it was once seldom found in restaurants.

The most visible of palace skills was the art of fruit and vegetable carving. Watermelons, mangoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, spring onions, chilies, ginger root and innumerable other garnishes and delicacies became realistic flowers, leaves and abstract designs through the deft use of a knife, sometimes requiring as long to prepare as the dishes that they adorned.

Royal polygamy ended under King Rama VI. A few resisted relocation—at least one was still in residence as late as the 1960s—but gradually, the ladies of the "Inside" and their numerous attendants left their protected existence and entered another, very different one outside the high walls. Even today, the once-teeming streets and elegant palaces are closed to most outsiders, though some women continue to come and, sitting in the shade of venerable trees, continue to make the beautiful garlands and other flower arrangements presented by the royal family at the countless ceremonies over which they preside.

Fortunately, though, palace cooking did not vanish along with the hidden world where it originated. It survived through the descendants of the royal women and, especially in recent years, has been discovered by a wider public through several restaurants that take pride in their re-creations of this unique cuisine.

A Moveable Feast

A Moveable Feast Food vendors and their role in everyday life First come the pile drivers to lay the foundations

for one of the huge new buildings that seem to be rising on almost every street in Bangkok and other major cities. The workers follow, setting up a collection of temporary shacks on or near the site. And then, often simultaneously, the food vendors appear, ready to supph' a quick, cheap, above all convenient meal to anyone who happens to crave one. A Thai city street without vendors is as hard to imagine as one devoid of traffic.

As a result of this widespread interest, Thai street food has evolved into a distinctive culinary category all its own, generally characterized by speed of preparation (if any is done on the spot} and easy portability of equipment and roughly divided into snacks and more substantial fare.

Snacks cover a wide range. Some may consist of nothing more than freshly sliced fruit sprinkled with salt, sugar, dried chilies or a combination of these seasonings. Or they may be a selection of traditional sweets, prepared by the vendor at home and temptingly arranged in a display case. Other vendors offer noodle creations adequate for a fast, nourishing lunch. To produce the universally popular kway-tiaow1 a bowl of freshly cooked rice noodles is given a few ladles of meat stock, topped with precooked pork or chicken, and sprinkled with sugar, crushed peanuts and dried chili flakes, while for Pad Thai the noodles are quickly stir-fried with garlic, spring onions, salty dried shrimp and a variety of spices.

Gai Yang, northeastern-style barbecued chicken, is grilled over a charcoal brazier and often served with side orders of glutinous rice and green papaya salad.

Just about every governor of Bangkok has tried, at some point in his tenure, to outlaw food vendors, citing civic hygiene, sidewalk obstruction and general untidiness. All have failed for the simple reason that the vendors fill a clearly perceived need for a substantial number of city residents. Were the opportunity for a quick meal to be taken away, as one fan wrote indignantly to a local newspaper, "it would be the end of civilisation as we know it."

Regional Cooking

Regional Cooking In a land of geographic diversity, distinctive variations on a basic theme Perhaps the majority of foreign lovers of Thai food have acquired their taste for it in restaurants abroad, or during a visit limited largely to Bangkok, what many may fail to realize is that the country's cooking varies from region to region, sometimes in small ways that only a true expert could fully appreciate, sometimes in dramatic ways. A provincial journey can thus be a rewarding culinary experience as well as an opportunity to enjoy a variety of scenic attractions.

In the mountainous north, for instance, where borders are shared with Burma and Laos, the cuisine is as distinctive as the handicrafts for which the region is noted. Here, the earliest Thais settled on their migration southward from China, forming first a group of small city states and then a loose federation known as Lanna, with Chiang Mai as the principal city.

Over the years there were conflicts with both Burma and the rising Thai state of Ayutthaya in the Central Plains. Even after the Lanna kingdom came under the administrative control of Bangkok, it remained remote from the rest of the countiy until a railway was cut in 1921.

As a result of this long isolation, the north was able to retain much of its native culture: its language (as different from central Thai as Spanish is from Portuguese), its crafts (among them lacquer, silverware and fine wood-carving), its customs (such as placing ajar of cool water outside houses for thirsty passersb5') and its food.

Instead of the soft, boiled rice of the central region, northerners prefer a steamed glutinous variety, rolled into small balls and dipped into liquid dishes. Curries of the region tend to be thinner, without the coconut milk so widely used in central and southern cooking. There is also a distinctive local version of Nam Prik Ong, a basic dipping sauce served with raw vegetables and crispy pork skin, as well as a pork sausage called Nacm, eaten plain with rice or mixed into various dishes, when it is in season, the favorite local fruit is the succulent longan, which grows in almost every compound.

The influence of neighboring Burma and Laos is apparent in many northern dishes. The former, for example, was responsible for the popular Khao Soi, a curry broth with egg noodles and chicken, pork or beef, as well as Gaeng Hang Lay, a pork curry seasoned with ginger, tamarind and turmeric. Of Laotian origin are Nam Prik Noom, a sauce with a strong chili-lime flavor and Ook Gai, a red chicken curry with lemongrass.

The traditional form of entertainment in the north is the kantoke dinner, the name derived from kan, or "bowl," and toke, a low round table made of woven bamboo, plain or lacquered. Sitting on the floor around the table, guests help themselves to the assorted dishes placed on it and regularly replenished by the attentive hostess.

Like the north, northeastern Thailand was also long regarded as remote from the cosmopolitan world of Bangkok. In this case, however, the reason was not so much geography as a perceptible social prejudice on the part of city dwellers. Isan, as Thais call the northeast, was the poorest of the country's four main regions, with infertile soil and devastating droughts that frequently drove farmers to the capital in search of work as laborers, taxi drivers, domestic servants.

Finicky outsiders tended to look on Isan food as "strange," and some of the region's delicacies are certainly unusual when compared with the abundance of other areas: grubworms and grasshoppers, for instance, ant eggs, snail curry and fermented fish of exceptional pungency. But increasingly, other less exotic dishes typical of the region have won widespread admiration, to the point where they now appear on the menus of smart Bangkok restaurants and are savored by the most discriminating Thai food connoisseurs. Some diners, indeed, look upon a properly prepared Som Tam (spicy green papaya salad) or Laab (even spicier minced pork or chicken) as being the true marks of a superior Thai cook, wherever he may be plying his trade.

If the people of Isan "eat anything," as residents of other regions often remark, they have a definite skill for transforming it in ways that show both imagination and ingenuity. Barbecued chicken or Gai Yang, is grilled with a healthy lashing of peppery sauce and garlic, while catfish is the base of a delectable curry and Laab Dip is made with raw meat and roasted rice powder.

For Haw Mok, fish is ground with curry paste and then steamed in banana leaf to make a many-fla-vored custard. Beef—a relatively rare commodity— is marinated and grilled, and any leftovers are combined with fresh mint, green onions, and chilies for a fiery salad. Perhaps because chilies add such a zip to the most mundane dish, northeasterners tend to use them with a greater abandon than Thais of other areas.

Much northeastern cooking reflects the influence of Laos just across the Mekong River—not surpri-zingly since many residents are ethnically Lao. Dill (called pak chee Lao or "Laotian coriander" by Thais) is widely used as a garnish, and glutinous rice is preferred to the normal variety. Also of Lao origin and popular on festive occasions is Khanom Buang, a crispy crepe stuffed with dried shrimp, bean sprouts, and other ingredients.

Southern Thailand consists of a slender peninsula stretching down to Malaysia, dramatically different from the rest of the country in both scenery and culture. Lush jungle clambers up craggy limestone mountains, nurtured by rain that falls for eight months of the year, and cultivated areas tend to be vast rubber and coconut plantations rather than the familiar rice fields and fruit orchards of the central plains. From villages along two long coastlines—one on the Gulf of Thailand, the other on the Indian Ocean—thousands of boats sail out to fish the surrounding waters, bringing back seafood for localconsumption and profitable export.

Highly distinctive visually is the domed mosque, for the south is home to most of Thailand's two million Muslims, its largest religious minority. These are concentrated in the provinces adjacent to Malaysia, where Malay is spoken as commonly as Thai. In other southern places like Songkhla and the island of Phuket, Chinese predominate and lend their own particular color to the local scene.

Southern food reflects most of these features, cultural and otherwise, as well as others from its

more distant past when traders from India and Java sailed to its numerous ports. The graceful coconuts to be seen growing so plentifully everywhere provide milk for thickening soups and curries, oil for frying and grated flesh as a condiment for many dishes.

From the seas come huge marine fish, rock lobsters, crabs, mussels, squid, prawns and scallops, while local plantations yield cashew nuts, which turn up regularly as an appetizer or garnish, and small but juicy pineapples, which provide a popular sweet at the end of a meal.

Seafood may be prepared simply, grilled or steamed; or more elaborately, baked in a claypot with thin noodles and garlic; or as the main component of Tom Yam, that ubiquitous Thai soup laced

with lemongrass and chilies. In general, southerners like their food chili-hot, and are fond of a bitter taste imparted by a flat, native bean called sa-taw, which other Thais tend to find less appealing.

Contributions from other cultures include Gaeng Mussaman, an Indian-Style curry with cardamom, cloves, cinnamon and either chicken or beef; Malay fish curries, often with a garnish of fresh fruit; and Indonesian satay, marinated bits of meat on bamboo skewers with a spicy peanut sauce.

The fourth of the country's regions, the Central Plains, is the Thai heartland: a vast checkerboard of paddy fields, orchards and vegetable gardens, with Bangkok as the principal market and cultural magnet. The best rice comes from here, pearly white and fragrant, and so do the best fruits—mangoes and durians, ruby-red mangosteens and hairy rambutans, crisp guavas, papayas and pomelos, even grapes in a special tropical hybrid. Vegetables, eaten in large quantities, include cabbage, mushrooms, morning glory (water spinach), cucumber, tomatoes and pumpkins, as well as more recent introductions like asparagus and baby corn.

Food in the villages that stand like islands amid the fields tends to be plain: rice with stir-fried vegetables, fish from a nearby canal or river, perhaps some minced chicken with garlic, chilies and basil and a salad of salted eggs, chilies and spring onion with a squeeze of lime.

In Bangkok, of course, everything is available, even the most exotic regional delicacies, if one knows where to look. The capital is also the place for the creations known as "palace cooking," distinguished for their elegant presentation and served only in the best restaurants. Perhaps most typical of the city's culinary offerings, however, are the many fast foods based on Chinese noodles, prepared at a moment's notice at any sidewalk cafe or by vendors who push their carts along residential streets. Tasty, nourishing, occasionally even distinguished, these quick meals epitomize the busy life of Bangkok and also the Thai capacity for making something special out of the simplest ingredients.

The Evolution of Thai Cuisine

The Evolution of Thai Cuisine The development of a unique and skillfully composed mosaic One of the most notable characteristics of Thai decorative art is its passion for intricate detail, particularly apparent in complex mosaics of colored glass and porcelain that adorn so many religious buildings. From afar, these suggest a solid, seamless pattern; only on closer inspection are the separate components revealed, and the skillful way they have been put together.

It is easy to see an analogy between such mosaics and many aspects of Thai culture, including its cuisine. Here, too, a wide variety of elements have been brought together and artfully composed into something quite unique, often surprising in the effect that it creates.

Little is known about the cooking of Sukhothai, where so much of what we regard as distinctively Thai first emerged. From the information in King Ramkhamhaeng's famous inscription, however, it is clear that rice and fish were the major ingredients. Fruits were undoubtedly plentiful as well, along with mushrooms that grew wild in the forests and a variety of vegetables. One item not present,

however, was the now ubiquitous chili, which originated in Central and South America and did not appear in Asian cuisines until the arrival of the first Europeans, several centuries later.

. A clearer picture is available of Ayutthaya, thanks largely to 17th-century French visitors who characteristically devoted a considerable amount of space to the subject of food in their accounts of the kingdom. Simon de la Loubere, for instance, who came with a diplomatic mission in 1687, was struck by the fact that the people ate sparingly. Good salt, he found, was a rare commodity, and fresh fish was seldom eaten, despite its abundance.

"A Siamese," he wrote, "makes a very good meal with a pound of rice a day, which amounts to not more than a farthing, and with a little dry or salt fish, which costs not much more...Their sauces are plain, a little water with some spices, garlic, or some sweet herb. They do very much esteem a liquid sauce, like mustard, which is only crayfish corrupted because they are ill-salted; they call it Kepi." Nicolas Gervaise, a Jesuit missionary, noted that kapi, the popular fermented shrimp paste, "has such a pungent smell that it nauseates anyone not accustomed to it" and gives perhaps the first general recipe for a typical Thai condiment based on it: "salt, pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cloves, garlic, white onions, nutmeg and several strongly flavoured herbs...mixed in considerable quantities with this shrimp paste."

From these accounts it is clear that for all its seeming simplicity, Thai cooking was already becoming more sophisticated. The presence of cloves and nutmeg is evidence of trade with the East Indies, and the fact that numerous Chinese, Japanese, Malays and Indians lived in Ayutthaya suggests other likely influences. None of the French writers specifically mentions chilies, but they were probably already in use, either brought directly by the Portuguese, who opened relations in 1511, or having come via Malacca or India. The Portuguese were also responsible for a number of still popular Thai sweets based on sugar and egg yolks and possibly for introducing the tomato, which is of New World origin.

The complex seasonings we now regard as typical of Thai cuisine, including chilies, were certainly well established by the Rattanakosin, or Bangkok, period. This is made abundandy clear in an account by Sir John Bowring, who wrote in 1855: "The Siamese prepare considerable quantities of curry as their habitual food. These are generally so hot that they burn the mouth of a European."

Bowring obviously learned to appreciate some of the "ardent comestibles," among them the essential

sauce called namprik, which, he explained, "is prepared by bruising a small quantity of red pepper in a mortar, to which are added kapi (paste of shrimps or prawns), black pepper, garlic and onions. These being thoroughly mixed, a small quantity of brine and citron-juice is added. Ginger, tamarinds and gourd seeds are also employed. The nam prik is one of the most appetite-exciting condiments."

Rice noodles were probably common in Ayuttha-ya, part of the China's considerable culinary legacy, but they became even more so in Bangkok, enhanced with Thai flavors and popular as a luncheon dish. Vendors offered a quick meal of kwaytiaow (stir-fried noodles with vegetables and meat or shrimp) from boats along the canals that threaded the capital and still do on almost every sidewalk in the city.

Another, more refined type of cuisine prevailed in royal and aristocratic households. Sometimes referred to as "palace cooking," this entailed not only great skill at blending various ingredients to achieve the most subtle nuances of taste but also the ability to carve fruits and vegetables in a wide variety of decorative forms to enhance the appearance of a dish. The acknowledged center of such skills was the women's quarter of the Grand Palace, where many daughters of aristocratic families were sent to prepare them for future life.

Thai food today may still be plain or fancy, a dish that can be prepared in a few minutes over a charcoal brazier or one requiring hours of chopping, grinding and carving; it may vary considerably from region to region. Always, though, it remains a singular creation, not quite like any of the influences that have shaped it over the centuries.

The Land and its People

The Land and its People From rice fields to rubies: a country as varied and complex as its people
images of Thailand among outsiders vary according to taste and temperament. To some, the country conjures up a King and I fantasy of gilded temples and palaces, to others a palm-fringed beach of snowy white sand, an exotic tribal village high in misty mountains or the brassy, big-city lure of Bangkok. All are valid enough as individual impressions, yet misleading in terms of the whole, for Thailand, like its food, is a complex mixture of flavors and the product of a unique history.

Covering some 198,500 square miles—roughly the size of France—it encompasses a wide range of topography. Mountains in the far north, where Thailand's borders meet those of Burma and Laos, rise to more than 8,000 feet, with verdant valleys and the remains of once-extensive teak forests.

The northeast consists of a rolling semi-arid plateau stretching all the way to the Mekong River, while the flat central plains, watered by the chao Phraya River, form one of the richest rice-growing regions on earth. The narrow southern isthmus, extending down to Malaysia, is bordered on one side by the Gulf of Thailand and on the other by the Indian Ocean, with a spine of rugged limestone mountains down the middle.

A largely benign climate allows year-round cultivation of crops, not only rice but also fruits and vegetables. Even today, despite the growth of urban areas, the great majority of the population can be found in villages of around 150 households (about 700 people) who derive their living from agriculture. Other natural resources include a variety of minerals, precious stones, such as rubies and sapphires, and an abundance of seafood along two long coastlines bordering the Indian Ocean to the west and the South China Sea to the east.

The Thais were not the first people drawn to this land of plenty. Evidence of settlers dating back to the Paleolithic Age, some 500,000 years ago, have been found in several parts of the country, and archaeologists exploring a cave near the Burmese border discovered the carbonized remains of such plants as Chinese water chestnut, bottle gourd and cucumber that were dated from 9,700 to 6,000 B.C. The most dramatic and extensive prehistoric remains have emerged in the northeast, where a remarkable culture flourished from around 4,000 B.C. to just after the start of the christian Era, numbering among its achievements rice cultivation and sophisticated bronze metallurgy.

Indian traders later established ports along the southern peninsula, bringing not only Buddhism but numerous other cultural and culinary influences. Mon settlers arrived around the same time in the chao Phraya valley and founded the Dvara-vati kingdom, a major producer of rice as well as an important religious center. Their power was eventually replaced by that of the Khmers, whose empire once extended over the northeast and much of the central region.

The ethnic Thais, originating as a minority group in what is now southern China, gradually migrated southward in search of greater independence and better land for agriculture. The earliest groups settled in the far north, forming a loose federation of city states centered around Chiang Mai. Others ventured farther down, to the northern extremities of the central plains. By the 13th century, the Thais had established themselves in such numbers that they were eventually able to overthrow their Khmer overlords and establish a kingdom of their own.

This kingdom was called Sukhothai, which in Sanskrit means "Dawn of Happiness," and though its power lasted less than two centuries, its influence proved far more enduring. Under King Ramkhamhaeng, the greatest Sukhothai ruler, the Thai alphabet was devised, splendid works of Buddhist art were created and a truly indigenous Thai culture emerged.

Ayutthaya, the next capital, began in 1350 as a small city-state on the chao Phraya River and over the next 400 years became one of the most cosmopolitan cities in Southeast Asia. Countless new ingredients were added to the Thai cultural blend

in this period, during which the first contacts were made with Europe and an active trade established with other Asian countries. At its peak in the late 17th century, Ayutthaya had a population greater than London, representing more than a dozen different cultures.

Less than a century later, Ayutthaya fell to an invading Burmese army, which proceeded to burn the great city and disperse most of its people. The Thais rallied with remarkable speed, however, and within the next fifteen years had managed to expel the Burmese and to establish a temporary capital farther down the river at Thonburi. In 1782, a dynamic young military leader assumed the throne as King Rama I, founded the present chakri Dynasty, and moved the capital across the chao Phraya to what is now Bangkok.

Bangkok began as a conscious evocation of the lost capital of Ayutthaya. Many of the early palaces and temples were replicas of similar ones in the old capital; similarly, too, an intricate network of canals served as streets, crowded with boats of all kinds.

But with growing prosperity, this traditional Thai aspect soon changed dramatically. Though skilled Chakri rulers were able to maintain the kingdom's independence, Chinese immigrants who came in large numbers to the new city, as well as Western traders, added to its diversity. By the end of the 19th century, roads stretched far from the river banks and Bangkok was well on its way to becoming a modem, Western-style city—at least in appearance.

Change was more gradual in the countryside, where the age-old patterns continued to prevail. Indeed, some areas, such as the far north and the northeast, remained relatively isolated until

well into the present century, preserving regional ways that included cooking as well as other aspects of culture. Even Bangkok, behind its facade, is still more Thai than many visitors might perceive, since it is for the most part composed of villagers attracted by city jobs but attuned to traditional ways.

Famed for their dazzling smiles, love of fun and apparent adaptability, the Thais also have other traits, perhaps less evident to the casual observer: a toughness which enabled them to prevail over others who sought the same territory, a passion for independence and, most of all, a genius for absorbing outside influences while maintaining their own distinctive identity.

Food in Thailand

Food in Thailand "In the water there are fish, in the fields there is rice."
Thus reads a celebrated stone inscription credited to King Ramkhamhaeng of Sukhothai, the first independent Thai kingdom founded in the early 13th century. It testifies to a natural abundance that was to sustain a series of capitals down the length of the fertile Chao Phraya River valley and also, more specifically, to the two mainstays of the Thai diet both then and now.

Rice culture came with the earliest settlers, long before the Thais themselves arrived on the scene, and led to a vast complex of paddy fields watered by an intricate system of canals, rivers and reservoirs. Fish were equally plentiful, not only in the myriad waterways but also in the seas.

To these basic ingredients, readily available to all, were gradually added others, drawn over the centuries from a wide variety of cultures: some nearby, like China and India, some remote like Persia and Portugal. Even such seemingly essential elements as the pungent chili pepper were, in fact, introductions from distant South America. However they came, though, they were subtly modified and refined into a cuisine distinctively Thai, not quite like any other in the world.

The diverse glories of classic Thai cooking long remained unappreciated by the outside world. Alone among the countries of Southeast Asia, Thailand remained independent during the era of colonization; thus, relatively few Westerners sampled its unique blends of hot and sweet, sour and salty—so different from the dishes of India, Malaya and Indonesia, despite their superficial similarity.

Even those who came for lengthy stays were rarely treated to the genuine fare. Restaurants catering to foreigners in larger cities like Bangkok tended until quite recently to be Chinese or European. For the most part, only in private homes could one sample delicate, traditional dishes that resulted from hours of preparation by skilled hands, using methods that had been handed down for generations.

All that, of course, has now changed dramatically. In the past decade or so, Thai food has become an international phenomenon, with countless restaurants now offering it from Sydney to Stockholm. Serious Western chefs find fresh inspiration in its flavors and techniques, and ordinaiy diners are discovering its remarkable diversity. In Thailand itself, regional variations are far more available than before, and there are now elegantly decorated establishments specializing in the refined art of "palace cooking."

Thai food, then, might be said to have entered a new era, one that will certainly bring an even wider appreciation of its many delights.